Yale’s Path from Exclusion to Racial and Gender Diversity

The history of Yale University, particularly in the 20th century, is marked by significant shifts in its admissions policies, moving from a predominantly white, male, Anglo-Saxon Protestant institution to one that embraces diversity. This evolution involved confronting and dismantling various forms of discrimination, including ethnic, religious, racial, and gender-based biases.

The Concept of Character and its Misuse

Historically, "character" and "leadership" were often used in admissions as coded language to exclude non-white, non-male, non-Anglo-Saxon Protestant individuals, while simultaneously boosting the chances of those who fit the traditional mold. However, the concept of character itself is not inherently negative. Martin Luther King Jr., a recipient of an honorary degree from Yale in 1964, famously articulated in his "I Have a Dream" speech the desire to be judged by the "content of his character" rather than the "color of his skin." This sentiment was echoed in his earlier writings as an undergraduate, where he stated, "intelligence is not enough. Intelligence plus character—that is the goal of true education." This argument became a powerful tool for advocates of racial and gender equality, challenging the notion that character was the exclusive preserve of any single ethnicity, gender, or religion.

Black Enrollment at Yale: A Long and Complex History

While Jewish students were present at Yale as early as the late 18th century, and Jewish and Italian immigration to New Haven increased in the late 19th century, a substantial Black population existed in New Haven since the 18th century, comprising roughly 5% of the city's population until the 1940s. Connecticut, surprisingly to some, practiced slavery until 1848.

In 1831, a proposal for the first Historically Black College or University in New Haven was rejected by town leaders, including those connected with Yale. This missed opportunity potentially hindered the development of an African-American middle class and intellectual leadership in the region.

Yale's alumni and leadership were divided on the issue of slavery, with both active opponents like Jonathan Edwards and Roger Sherman Baldwin, and staunch supporters like John C. Calhoun. Calhoun College was later renamed Hopper College due to his pro-slavery legacy.

Throughout the 19th century, African-American students at Yale were few and far between, often in exceptional circumstances. Reverend Pennington, recognized at the Yale Divinity School, is one such example.

Edward Bouchet (Class of 1874): A Pioneer Edward Bouchet was long considered the first documented African-American graduate of Yale College. He was also the first African-American to earn a Ph.D. in any subject in the United States, receiving his Ph.D. in physics from Yale in 1876. Born into slavery, his family moved to New Haven after abolition, and he attended Hopkins School. He graduated sixth in his class at Yale and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Despite his academic brilliance, Bouchet faced significant challenges in pursuing an academic career in white colleges due to racial discrimination. He taught at Black colleges, but the prevailing educational philosophy, influenced by Booker T. Washington, favored technical education over the liberal arts, making it difficult for a physics professor like Bouchet to find suitable positions. He eventually returned to New Haven, where he passed away.

Richard Henry Greene (Class of 1857): A Story of Racial Passing More recently, research uncovered Richard Henry Greene, a mixed-race graduate from the class of 1857. Greene grew up in a Black community in New Haven. While listed as "mulatto" on the 1850 census, he was listed as "white" in 1870, suggesting he "passed" as white to achieve success. He married a white woman, served in the Navy as a surgeon, and attended Dartmouth Medical School. His story highlights the limited opportunities for African-Americans at Yale and the societal pressures that led some to conceal their racial identity.

Early 20th Century Decline and the Great Migration After a small flourishing of Black students in the late 19th century, there appears to have been a decline in early 20th century enrollment. The Great Migration, which saw African-Americans move from the South to northern cities, did not significantly impact New Haven until the 1950s and 1960s, likely due to fewer job opportunities compared to other major northern cities. By the 1950s and 60s, New Haven had become a diverse city with a growing African-American population.

The Rise of Affirmative Action and Diversification Efforts

President Kingman Brewster, who became president in 1963, recognized the unacceptable situation of only admitting occasional Black students. In 1960, only five Black freshmen enrolled at Yale.

Cooperative Program for Educational Opportunity (1962) In 1962, Ivy League schools and their peers created this program to diversify their student bodies. By 1966, it led to 35 African-Americans in Yale's entering class, and by 1969, this number reached 96 (71 men and 25 women, as women were admitted by then).

President Kennedy's Call to Action (1963) President Kennedy urged university presidents to promote equal opportunity for African-Americans in top universities. This initiative has a parallel in President Obama's 2014 call for increased access for first-generation and low-income (FGLI) students, which led to a significant increase in FGLI enrollment at Yale.

Key Initiatives in the 1960s: * First African-American Admissions Officer (1965): Yale hired its first Black admissions officer. * Pell Grant (1965): The U.S. government introduced the Educational Opportunity Grant, now known as the Pell Grant, providing financial aid to low-income students. Approximately 20% of Yale students are Pell Grant eligible. * Need-Blind Admissions (1966): Yale implemented need-blind admissions, ensuring that a student's financial need does not affect their admission decision.

The "Hidden Curriculum" and Educational Opportunity The Office of Educational Opportunity, established in 2023, aims to support FGLI students by teaching the "hidden curriculum"—the unwritten rules and knowledge that can help students succeed. This initiative addresses a gap in graduation rates between low-income students and the overall student body, striving for equitable outcomes.

Black Student Alliance at Yale (BSAY) The BSAY mobilized in the late 1960s, playing a crucial role in advocating for increased Black enrollment. Black students from Yale actively recruited prospective students from various parts of the country that Yale had not traditionally reached.

Challenges to Affirmative Action

The term "affirmative action" originated in executive orders signed by Presidents Kennedy and Johnson in 1961 and 1965, initially focusing on federal government employment. Its application to schools evolved more gradually. Affirmative action programs faced multiple legal challenges, primarily through Supreme Court decisions:

1. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978): The court ruled against quotas but allowed race to be considered as one factor in admissions, leading to the development of "holistic admissions."
2. Grutter v. Bollinger (2003): The court upheld the diversity principle, allowing universities to consider race to achieve the educational benefits of a diverse student body. However, it rejected the argument that affirmative action could be used to remedy past or present discrimination.
3. Supreme Court Decision (2023): The court declared most forms of affirmative action unconstitutional, marking a significant shift in the legal landscape of college admissions.

Notable African-American Alumni

• Levi Jackson (Class of 1950): The first Black football player at Yale and the first Black captain of the football team (1949), a national news story at the time. He was also the first Black member of Skull and Bones. Jackson chose not to play in the major leagues, instead serving in the Army and becoming an automotive executive. His story reflects a period of early liberalization at Yale.
• Kurt Schmoke (Class of 1971): A quarterback for Yale, a leader of the Black Student Alliance at Yale (BSAY), and a Rhodes Scholar. He went on to Harvard Law School and became the first Black mayor of Baltimore. He later served on the Yale Corporation. Schmoke, along with Calvin Hill (a running back and quarterback the year before him), played during a highly successful era for Yale football. The Calvin Hill Daycare was founded during this time.

The Admission of Women to Yale College

The idea of admitting women to Yale College was a more sudden shift compared to the gradual increase in minority enrollment. While women's colleges like Vassar, Barnard, and Radcliffe existed, and some institutions like Oberlin and Stanford were coeducational from their founding, the Ivy League men's colleges largely remained single-sex until the late 1960s.

Early Openings: * Yale School of Art (1869): The School of Art, founded by Mr. Street (Class of 1812) and his wife, Carolyn Leffingwell Street, was coeducational from its inception, admitting women as non-degree students. * Graduate and Professional Schools (Early 20th Century): These schools gradually opened to women, often in special cases or sometimes by "mistake" when gender was not explicitly stated in applications. Notable female graduates include Grace Hopper (Ph.D. 1934) and Pauli Murray (Doctorate in Jurisprudence 1965).

Resistance and Advocacy: Some undergraduates opposed coeducation, with the Yale Daily News publishing an editorial titled "keep Yale male." However, the Doob Report of 1962 recommended coeducation, arguing that the nation was "wasting half the talent" by not providing rigorous training for women, a patriotic and feminist argument.

The Vassar College Proposal (1967): Yale initially explored the idea of a "sister college" and approached Vassar, but Vassar decided to remain in Poughkeepsie.

Brewster's Initial Hesitation: President Brewster, while progressive on racial and ethnic diversity, was more conservative regarding women's admission. He initially proposed "coordinate colleges," believing women would primarily study humanities in separate classes.

The Turning Point: Princeton's Decision (1968): The announcement by Princeton in 1968 that it planned to go coeducational spurred Yale to action. Within two months, Yale announced its own coeducational plan. This decision was partly driven by the recognition that male applicants were increasingly seeking coeducational environments.

Implementation and Challenges: Sam Chauncey and Elga Wasserman were tasked with making arrangements for women on campus. Garry Trudeau's "Doonesbury" cartoon series, which began during this period, often satirized the adjustments to coeducation.

Brewster's initial goal was to admit 1,000 men and 500 women per class, but this proved problematic. The admission rate for men was 22%, while for women it was only 10%, despite a high demand from female applicants. Elga Wasserman, who was made special assistant to the president (as calling her an associate dean was deemed "insulting to the male associate deans"), advocated for equal admission and financial aid criteria for men and women.

It took until 1995 for women to reach 50% of the class, a testament to the long process of integration. The Women's Table by Maya Lin, created in 1993, commemorates the increasing enrollment of women at Yale.

Today, Yale has its first female president, President McInnis (Ph.D. 1996), and its first African-American dean of Yale College, Jonathan Holloway. These milestones, while significant, highlight that the "arc of the moral universe bends towards justice," but it often takes generations to achieve true equality and representation in leadership roles.